Women have historically been underrepresented in medical research, with some of the largest gender gaps presenting in neuroscience and related fields (Shansky & Woolley, 2016). Consistent with this trend, very little neuropsychology research (3% in a recent study; Prieto et al., 2024) is specifically tailored to examine how women are uniquely impacted by neurological conditions. In Neuropsychology of Women: Considerations for Clinical Care and Research, we (Drs. Sullivan-Baca and Ellison) provide a resource for neuropsychologists and other related specialists, to better understand how women are differentially impacted by various conditions due to a combination of biological and psychosocial factors, and outline the resulting clinical implications of these differences. We also aim to inspire researchers by highlighting the dearth of research that is present and what specific research directions have yet to be pursued.
The Gap We Aim to Fill
The influence of biological sex and psychosocial gender factors on women’s health is underacknowledged at all levels of research and dissemination of knowledge. Women were historically excluded from medical studies due to reproductive concerns and, while rules excluding women from such studies have changed over time, women are still underrepresented in several areas of medical research (Daitch et al., 2022; Jagsi et al., 2009; Killien et al., 2000; Vitale et al., 2017).
Within neuropsychology, trends suggest that women are about equally represented in research, but women’s and gender issues are rarely the primary focus of research (Prieto et al., 2024). I (Dr. Sullivan-Baca) was keenly aware of this fact in 2022 when I published an article about pregnancy-related stroke, which appears to be the first article in a major neuropsychology journal to address this issue that impacts over 1,000 women per year in the United States (Sullivan-Baca et al., 2022). This was only one small step to address a much larger research dearth, with several conditions that predominantly impact women (e.g., autoimmune conditions, pregnancy, menopause) yet to be adequately explored. Notably, the last book related to the neuropsychology of women was limited in scope and is almost twenty years old at this point, and as a result, woefully outdated.
It is likely that trends in the literature extend to how knowledge is disseminated in graduate school and training programs. Anecdotally, we regularly receive feedback from colleagues that they were never taught about the relationship between gender and neurocognitive conditions during their training or career, and that they rarely receive training about the cognitive sequelae of conditions that predominately impact women. We are currently seeking to provide quantitative data to investigate this trend, with results expected to be published in early 2026.
The Layout of the Book
We were inspired by seminal textbooks in neuropsychology when organizing Neuropsychology of Women in order to emphasize conditions most often presenting in neuropsychology clinics. Specifically, we developed chapters dedicated to neurodevelopmental disorders; stroke and vascular dementia; traumatic brain injury; Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias; movement disorders; epilepsy; and cancer. Each chapter provides a brief overview of the condition before discussing how women are differentially impacted in terms of epidemiology, risk and resilience factors, diagnosis and prognosis, and symptom presentation.
We then dedicated chapters to conditions that present primarily in women or to a greater extent in women, including autoimmune disorders; chronic health conditions; and pregnancy, menopause, and other hormonal changes. Each chapter is authored by leading experts in their subject area, who are able to blend established literature with new ideas and perspectives, as well as identify future directions for inquiry.
Each chapter of Neuropsychology of Women concludes with clinical and research takeaways. Clinical takeaways are meant to enhance clinicians’ evaluation and treatment of women patients through short, specific pearls of wisdom to be able to easily integrate into ongoing clinical practice. These takeaways are intended to provide neuropsychologists across training levels clear and concise material to easily incorporate into education and training modules, giving those new to our field insight into the unique ways in which women are impacted by various conditions. Research takeaways present the state of the current literature but also provide concrete future directions for researchers to pursue.
Who May Benefit from this Book
While neuropsychologists and future neuropsychologists at all stages of training are the primary target audience of Neuropsychology of Women, we believe this text could also be beneficial to clinicians in related fields. Specifically, health psychologists may find valuable information in chapters most related to their field, including chapters exploring autoimmune disorders and chronic health conditions. Geropsychologists may be particularly drawn to chapters outlining vascular dementia, movement disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, and other dementias that primarily impact older adults. Any clinician who works with patients experiencing pregnancy, menopause, or other hormonal changes may appreciate a novel chapter dedicated to the subjective and objective cognitive changes that take place during these periods. Neuroscience researchers who explore any of the clinical disorders outlined across the various chapters may also hold a vested interest in the information presented and research takeaways.
Our hope is that Neuropsychology of Women: Considerations for Clinical Care and Research will become a seminal text to provide not only the history and current context of women’s issues in our field, but also provide a road map to how we can change the future of women’s cognitive health.
References
Daitch, V., Turjeman, A., Poran, I., Tau, N., Ayalon-Dangur, I., Nashashibi, J., … & Leibovici, L. (2022). Underrepresentation of women in randomized controlled trials: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trials, 23(1), 1038.
Jagsi, R., Motomura, A. R., Amarnath, S., Jankovic, A., Sheets, N., & Ubel, P. A. (2009). Under‐representation of women in high‐impact published clinical cancer research. Cancer: Interdisciplinary International Journal of the American Cancer Society, 115(14), 3293-3301.
Killien, M., Bigby, J. A., Champion, V., Fernandez-Repollet, E., Jackson, R. D., Kagawa-Singer, M., … & Prout, M. (2000). Involving minority and underrepresented women in clinical trials: The National Centers of Excellence in Women’s Health. Journal of Women’s Health & Gender-Based Medicine, 9(10), 1061-1070.
Prieto, S., Bangen, K. J., Riegler, K., Kim, S. H., Mahmood, Z., Kaseda, E. T., … & Sullivan-Baca, E. (2024). Representation of women in neuropsychology research prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 46(3), 173-186.
Shansky, R. M., & Woolley, C. S. (2016). Considering sex as a biological variable will be valuable for neuroscience research. Journal of Neuroscience, 36(47), 11817-11822.
Sullivan-Baca, E., & Ellison, R. L. (Eds.). (2025). Neuropsychology of Women: Considerations for Clinical Care & Research. Springer Nature.
Sullivan-Baca, E., Modiano, Y. A., McKenney, K. M., & Carlew, A. R. (2024). Pregnancy-related stroke through a neuropsychology lens. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 38(6), 1293-1312.
Vitale, C., Fini, M., Spoletini, I., Lainscak, M., Seferovic, P., & Rosano, G. M. (2017). Under-representation of elderly and women in clinical trials. International Journal of Cardiology, 232, 216-221.
Erin Sullivan-Baca, PhD, ABPP
Board Certified in Clinical Neuropsychology
Correspondence: erinsullivanbaca@gmail.com
Rachael L. Ellison, PhD
Correspondence: rachael.ellison@rosalindfranklin.edu